1.     Introduction

1.1. Background to the Project

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is a vital sector for the health, well-being, and development of the people and the environ. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024 highlights that tensions over water are exacerbating conflicts. As water stress increases, so do the risks of local or regional conflict. With climate change projected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts, there are acute risks for social stability. About half of the world’s population experiences severe water scarcity for at least part of the year, and this scarcity can lead to conflicts.

Competition for natural resources, such as water, is frequently seen as a catalyst for conflict and has been a major element in both recent and historical conflicts. Nonetheless, disagreements over water whether it be plentiful or scarce don’t necessarily turn violent. Water management frequently fosters cooperation and brings people together; it can play a crucial role in efforts to prevent conflict, promote peace, and promote reconciliation. Fresh water is a precious and contentious resource that needs to be managed carefully and sensitively to conflicts to ensure that it will continue to serve its purposes in the long run because it is irreplaceable and essential to life.

Conflicts associated with water are not uncommon and can occur in general water resource development programs or more specific drinking water and sanitation (WASH) schemes. The conflicts range from mild competition over priority access to water to public outcry over environmentally destructive water use practices. Conflict can be defined as any situation in which two or more individuals or groups perceive their interests as mutually opposed and act on this perception. Water-related conflicts, therefore, can be understood to arise between two or more parties holding competing claims over a water resource, its allocation, or its use.

Reliable access to safe water and sanitation is integral to achieving development goals, yet people in fragile and conflict-affected settings are eight times more likely to lack access to it. While a water crisis is rarely the only cause of conflict, water crises can influence to a country’s insecurity. Just as no single driver reasons conflict, no single resolution will eliminate water insecurity.

Globally, the water conflict situation is becoming increasingly critical. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024 highlights that tensions over water are exacerbating conflicts. As water stress increases, so do the risks of local or regional conflict. With climate change projected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts, there are acute risks for social stability. About half of the world’s population experiences severe water scarcity for at least part of the year, and this scarcity can lead to conflicts, especially in regions where water management and transboundary agreements are insufficient.

Competition for natural resources, such as water, is frequently seen as a catalyst for conflict and has been a major element in both recent and historical conflicts. Nonetheless, disagreements over water whether it be plentiful or scarce don’t necessarily turn violent. Water management frequently fosters cooperation and brings people together; it can play a crucial role in efforts to prevent conflict, promote peace, and promote reconciliation. Fresh water is a precious and contentious resource that needs to be managed carefully and sensitively to conflicts to ensure that it will continue to serve its purposes in the long run because it is irreplaceable and essential to life.

Hence, Water is no longer limited to being a key factor for food security, health concerns and environmental challenges, rather it now plays a significant role in different vital sectors, such as economic and social impact, national security and has lately obtained distinctive political weight as a source of power. Water can be a tool for peace when communities and countries cooperate over this precious shared resource. But water can also spark and intensify conflict when access is denied and usage unfairly shared. Since 1993 every year, there is United Nation’s observance focusing on the importance of freshwater and the 2024 World Water Day was about working together to balance everyone’s needs, with a dedication to ensure no one is left behind, to make water a catalyst for a more peaceful world.

1.2.         The Project

Water is essential to human survival. Although freshwater is abundant, its supply is limited, and because of rising world population and rising economic levels, freshwater demand has been rising quickly. The availability and quality of water are changing on a regional and seasonal basis due to climate change and environmental deterioration. Though studies stress that conflict is rarely caused by a lack of water by itself, but rather by issues with governance and administration, the competition that results over water consumption may occasionally end in violence and conflict.

Since 2018, the GoE has implemented a climate resilient WASH approach, as recognized in the second phase One WASH National Program (OWNP Phase II) which requires climate resilience to be mainstreamed across the sector. Some studies confirmed that pastoralists were away from the central government for a long time and have been among the most marginalized group in terms of availability and access to public services including water and sanitation services.

In the pastoral context of Ethiopia, water conflicts are often intertwined with issues of land use, disputed boundaries, and state policies. Pastoralists inhabit a significant portion of Ethiopia’s land mass, primarily along its borders with Somalia, Kenya, and Sudan. However, they face pressure from both natural and man-made factors, including violent conflicts over access to water and productive land. These conflicts have become more dynamic and intense, driven by a combination of changing pastoralist practices, state projects, and the proliferation of small arms. The degradation of wetlands and ill-advised water development projects have exacerbated local disputes, causing tensions among pastoral communities.

The causes of water conflict in the lowland regions of Ethiopia are complex. Key factors include population surge: an increasing population leads to higher demand for limited water resources, agriculture: the agricultural sector’s high-water usage, especially for irrigation, can lead to conflicts over water allocation, poverty: economic challenges can exacerbate competition for water resources as people struggle to secure water for their basic needs, climate change: altered rainfall patterns and increased frequency of droughts disrupt traditional water availability, inadequate infrastructure: a lack of proper water storage and distribution systems can lead to unequal water access, governance Issues: ineffective water governance and insufficient investment in water management can lead to disputes.

Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving infrastructure, governance, and sustainable water management practices. It’s also important to involve local communities in decision-making processes to ensure equitable distribution and use of water resources.

Efforts to address these conflicts include the establishment of “peace committees” and the promotion of cooperative water management frameworks. However, the combination of more people and animals competing for shrinking pastures and water sources continues to produce conflict and may lead to urban migration. Addressing the root causes of these conflicts requires a comprehensive approach that considers the broader political and economic contexts and integrates local institutions and traditional conflict resolution mechanisms.

Considering this, USAID’s CR WASH Activity begins at ideal time to strengthen humanitarian-development coordination through conducting rapid assessment on the causes of water conflicts and to develop water conflict mitigation strategy.

Hence, the overall purpose of the five-year USAID Climate Resilient (CR) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Activity awarded to RTI International is to accelerate the expansion and sustainability of climate resilient water services and the adoption of key hygiene and sanitation practices for the underserved and vulnerable targeted lowland areas in Afar, Oromia, Somali and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) regions.

The Activity will work to fulfill this purpose through four complementary intermediate results:

 1. Professionalize and expand quality climate-resilient water services.

 2. Increase sustainable access to and use of sanitation and hygiene products and services, including for menstrual health and hygiene.

 3. Improve gender power dynamics; and

 4. Strengthen the enabling environment for climate-resilient water and sanitation services.

Therefore, the STTA is expected to strengthen humanitarian—development coordination (Task CC 2.1) through context assessment and developing a water conflict mitigation strategy (Sub-task CC.2.1); synthesize current GOE strategies and policy documents related to WASH service delivery in humanitarian response (i.e., Emergency WASH Rapid Response Mechanism, WASH Cluster Ethiopia), peacebuilding, and long-term development (i.e., OWNP and its sub-programs, growth and transformation plan il,  and Ministry of water, and energy ten year (2013-2022) strategic plan.

2.     Scope of Work

2.1  General

To conduct context assessment and develop a water conflict mitigation strategy; synthesize the GoE strategy and policy documents related to WASH delivery in humanitarian response, peacebuilding, and the long-term development of WASH activities. In the 36 woredas spread across nine zones in the Afar, Oromia, Somali, and South Ethiopia regions.

1.3. Scope of Work

Water scarcity and variability, exacerbated by climate change and population growth, pose significant challenges and risks for the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) systems and services in the lowland areas. Water conflicts can also undermine the social cohesion, peace, and security of lowland communities and hamper the delivery and sustainability of WASH services.

It is supposed that assessing the relevant causes of water conflict assists to design a proper conflict mitigation strategy. However, it is massive to list all causes of water conflicts, below are some of the common causes of conflicts that induce individuals or groups to get involved in the conflicts. Water Scarcity: In Ethiopia, drought and politics are two leading causes of water shortage; lowland areas often face water scarcity due to factors such as climate change, increased demand, and inefficient water management. Lack of good governance: normally, a shortage of water may not only lead to tensions but also affect administration and management. Water-theft. Water theft, also called unauthorized consumption, is potentially illegal water use. In Ethiopia, it is common practice, and massive water thefts are recorded in water-scarce areas during the dry season. After the theft, less punishment aggravates the situation. This scarcity can lead to conflicts over access to limited water resources. Failure to share data and information: consistent meteorological, hydrological, and socio-economic data are essential for long term subsistence water resource management across the country. For example, floods trigger from the upper stream may loss the lower users’ products and assets if the upper users fail to share the information with the lower users.

The SITTA will work together with the Enabling Environment Advisor and Deputy chief of party throughout all stages of the implementation of the USAID CR-WASH activity. Strengthen humanitarian—development coordination (Task CC 2.1) through conducting rapid assessment and developing a water conflict mitigation strategy (Sub-task CC.2.1); in 4 regions, 9 zones, and 36 Woredas.

Hence, the qualified consultancy firm assignments include the following major tasks and activities:

1.     Strengthen humanitarian—development coordination through achieving the following activities.

·       Conduct a context assessment of the causes of water conflicts and develop a water conflict mitigation strategy.

·       Facilitate a stakeholder’s consultative workshop on the context analysis findings and water conflict mitigation strategy to solicit comments/inputs to enrich the approach.

·       Create a resilience stakeholder coordination platform through consultation with relevant stakeholders (e.g., USAID implementing partners in the lowlands and GOE, UNOCHA).

·       Develop a ToR for the new platform with objectives, purpose, outcome, roles and responsibilities, and meeting frequency.

·       Do presentations to different relevant stakeholders, client, and donor whenever necessary on water conflict context assessment report and strategy/approach.

·       Incorporate comments/inputs from stakeholder consultative and validation workshops and submit the final report and strategy/approach.

2.2.         Assignment Description and locations

The USAID CR-WASH Project entails strengthening the enabling environment for climate-resilient water and sanitation services through Strengthen humanitarian—development coordination. To achieve this, there are two major tasks: Develop a Water Conflict Mitigation Strategy through conduction rapid assessment on causes of water conflict and create a resilience stakeholder coordination platform through preparing ToR for the new platform with objectives, purpose, outcome, roles and responsibilities, and meeting frequency.

Table 1: Proposed interventions and geography for intermediate result CC IR:1 Task CC. 1.2: Strengthen asset management data collection and use.

Climate-Resilient (CR) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) activity is implemented in thirty-six woredas across Afar, Somali, Oromia, and South Ethiopia regions (table 2). In these woredas, USAID RTI approach intended to result in over 825,150 with access to new or improved water services and support for over 215,000 people to adapt to the effects of climate change.

3.     Methodology

In undertaking the above assignment, the STTA will conduct water conflict context assessment and develop a water conflict mitigation strategy. The STTA could use appropriate methodology and include the following steps to conduct such an assessment:

o   Define the scope and objectives of the assessment, identify, and engage with key stakeholders, including government entities, local communities, NGOs, and experts in water management and conflict resolution.

o   Preliminary Research: Review existing literature, reports, and studies related to water conflicts in the specific region or context.

o   Analyze the water conflict in a deeper understanding of the global factsheets and country specific water sources. One of the main sources of the power of water is how this element interacts in daily life with multiple functions and by influencing different sectors.